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Home / What Did the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution Require?

What Did the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution Require?

1804 amendment regulating presidential elections

The 12th Amendment (Amendment XII) to the United States Constitution provides the procedure for electing the president and vice president. It replaced the procedure provided in Article Ii, Section 1, Clause three, past which the Electoral College originally functioned. The amendment was proposed by the Congress on Dec ix, 1803, and was ratified by the requisite iii-fourths of land legislatures on June 15, 1804. The new rules took issue for the 1804 presidential election and accept governed all subsequent presidential elections.

Under the original rules of the Constitution, each member of the Electoral Higher cast two electoral votes, with no stardom made between electoral votes for president and balloter votes for vice president. The presidential candidate receiving the greatest number of votes—provided that number at least equaled a bulk of the electors—was elected president, while the presidential candidate receiving the 2nd-most votes was elected vice president. In cases where no individual won a vote from a majority of the electors, also as in cases where multiple individuals won votes from a majority of electors but tied each other for the most votes, the House of Representatives would concur a contingent ballot to select the president. In cases where multiple candidates tied for the second-virtually votes, the Senate would hold a contingent election to select the vice president. The showtime iv presidential elections were conducted under these rules.

The experiences of the 1796 and 1800 presidential elections – showing that the original system caused the election of a President and Vice-President who were political opponents of each other, constantly acting at cantankerous-purposes – spurred legislators to amend the presidential ballot process to require each member of the Electoral College to cast one electoral vote for president and one electoral vote for vice president. Nether the new rules, a contingent election is withal held by the House of Representatives if no candidate wins a presidential electoral vote from a majority of the electors, but there is no longer any possibility of multiple candidates winning presidential electoral votes from a majority of electors. The Twelfth Amendment also lowered the number of candidates eligible to exist selected by the House in a presidential contingent ballot from five to three, established that the Senate would agree a contingent election for vice president if no candidate won a majority of the vice presidential electoral vote, and provided that no private constitutionally ineligible to the office of president would be eligible to serve every bit vice president.

Text [edit]

The Electors shall run into in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for equally Vice-President, and they shall make singled-out lists of all persons voted for as President, and all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;

The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open up all the certificates and the votes shall so be counted;

The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person accept such majority, so from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding 3 on the list of those voted for as President, the Firm of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. Merely in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a fellow member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a option. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the quaternary day of March next following, and then the Vice-President shall human activity equally President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional inability of the President.[a]

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall exist the Vice-President, if such number exist a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a bulk, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of 2-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.[ane]

  1. ^ (Notation: This provision was superseded past Sections 1and 3of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933.)

Background [edit]

Under the original process for the Electoral College, as provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, each elector cast two balloter votes, with no distinction made between balloter votes for president and balloter votes for vice president. The two people chosen by the elector could not both inhabit the same state as that elector. This prohibition was designed to keep electors from voting for two "favorite sons" of their corresponding states.[2] The person receiving the greatest number of votes, provided that number constituted a majority of the electors, was elected president, while the presidential candidate receiving the second-most votes was elected vice president.

In the cases where no candidate won a majority of balloter votes the House of Representatives would hold a contingent election to select the president. If there were more than one private who received the aforementioned number of votes, and such number equaled a bulk of the electors, the Firm would choose one of them to be president. If no individual had a majority, and so the House would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In both sets of circumstances, each state delegation had ane (en bloc) vote. A candidate was required to receive an absolute bulk, more than than half of the full number of states, in society to exist chosen as president.

Selecting the vice president was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the 2nd greatest number of votes for president became vice president. The vice president, dissimilar the president, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would hold a contingent election to select the vice president from those tied, with each senator casting one vote. A candidate was required to receive an absolute majority, more than half of the total Senate membership, in guild to be called every bit vice president.

The original balloter system worked adequately for the first two presidential elections because on both occasions George Washington was the unanimous choice of the electors for president; the only real contest was the election for vice president for which an overall majority was not required. George Washington's determination not to seek a tertiary term and the emergence of partisan political activity exposed issues with the original procedure.

In the 1796 election, John Adams, the Federalist Party presidential candidate, received a majority of the electoral votes. However, the Federalist electors scattered their 2d votes, resulting in the Democratic–Republican Party presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, receiving the second highest number of electoral votes and thus being elected vice president. It soon became apparent that having a vice president and a president unwilling to work together effectively was going to exist a more significant problem than was originally realized. The most significant trouble was that with the French Revolutionary Wars raging in Europe, it was immediately apparent that President Adams was going to pursue a pro-British foreign policy, much to the disgust of the strongly pro-French Vice President Jefferson.

Both major parties attempted to remedy the situation by having the president and vice president elected on a party ticket. This solution significantly enhanced the likelihood of having political allies serving as president and vice president just raised a different flaw in the arrangements.

On January half dozen, 1797, Federalist Representative William Fifty. Smith of South Carolina responded to the 1796 upshot by presenting a resolution on the floor of the Firm of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution requiring each elector to bandage one vote for president and another for vice president.[3] However, no action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked ballot of 1800.

The 1800 ballot exposed a defect in the original formula in that if each fellow member of the Electoral College followed party tickets, there could be a tie betwixt the 2 candidates from the most popular ticket. Both parties planned to prevent this by having ane of their electors abstain from voting for the vice presidential candidate to ensure a articulate effect. Jefferson managed to secure a bulk of pledged electors, but the margin in 1800 was so slim that in that location was little room for mistake if the Democratic–Republicans were to avert repeating the Federalists' miscues of 1796. Given the technical limitations of 18th-century communications, Autonomous–Republican electors in all states were left to presume that an elector in another state was the 1 responsible for casting the one avoidance necessary to ensure the ballot of unofficial vice presidential nominee Aaron Burr to that function. All Autonomous–Republicans electors in each country were so reluctant to be seen as the one responsible for causing approachable President Adams to be elected as vice president that every Democratic–Republican elector cast a vote for both Jefferson and Burr, resulting in a tie.

Consequently, a contingent presidential ballot was held in the House of Representatives. Federalist-controlled state delegations bandage their votes for Burr in an effort to forestall Jefferson from becoming president. Neither Burr nor Jefferson was able to win on the first 35 ballots. With help from Alexander Hamilton, the gridlock was finally broken on the 36th ballot and Jefferson was elected president on February 17, 1801.[4] This prolonged contingent election, combined with the increasing Democratic–Republican majorities in both the Business firm and the Senate, led to a consequential change in the nation's frame of government, the requirement of separate votes for president and vice president in the Electoral College.

Adoption [edit]

Journey to Congress [edit]

In March 1801, weeks later on the election of 1800 was resolved, 2 amendments were proposed in the New York Land Legislature that would form the skeleton of the Twelfth Amendment. Governor John Jay submitted an amendment to the state legislature that would require a district election of electors in each state. Assemblyman Jedediah Peck submitted an subpoena to prefer designations for the votes for president and vice president. The two amendments were not considered until early 1802 because the state legislature took a break for the summer and winter. New York land senator DeWitt Clinton moved for the adoption of the amendment in Jan 1802. Shortly thereafter, Clinton won a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in bringing the designation amendment to Congress. The process continued in New York on February xv when Representative Benjamin Walker of New York proposed the designation and district election amendments to the Firm. Debate on the amendments began in May. The Republicans wanted to decide on the amendment rapidly, but the Federalists argued that the ideas needed more time than the current session allowed. Federalist Samuel W. Dana of Connecticut wanted to examine the necessity of a vice president. The amendment ultimately failed in the New York State Senate, just DeWitt Clinton brought the amendment discussion to the Firm of Representatives.[5]

Congress was ready to debate the presented amendment, merely the Autonomous–Republicans decided to wait for the eighth Congress. The 8th Congress would allow the Autonomous–Republicans a amend chance of meeting the two-thirds vote requirement for submitting a proposed Ramble amendment.

Congressional contend [edit]

Business firm of Representatives [edit]

On its first solar day, the 8th Congress considered the designation subpoena. The first formulation of the amendment had the five highest balloter vote earners on the ballot in the House if no one candidate had a majority of the electoral votes. Democratic–Republican John Clopton of Virginia, the largest state in the Spousal relationship, argued that having five names on the list for a contingency election took the power from the people, and so he proposed that in that location be just two names on the list. On October 20, the Firm appointed a seventeen-member committee (one Representative from each state) to fine-melody the amendment.[vi]

The original proposal starting in the New York Country Legislature would accept, forth with designation, put forward the idea of the district election of electors that Treasury Secretarial assistant Gallatin had supported. Shortly after the committee was formed, Federalist Benjamin Huger attempted to add a provision regarding district elections to the proposed amendment, but the committee ignored him.[vii]

The committee then submitted an updated version of the designation amendment to the House on October 23 that changed the number of candidates in a contingency election from five to three and allowed the Senate to choose the vice president if there were a tie in that race. Small Federalist states disliked the change from 5 to three considering information technology made information technology far less likely that a small-land candidate would make it to a contingency election. Huger and New York Federalist Gaylord Griswold argued that the Constitution was a compromise between large and pocket-size states and the method called past the Framers is supposed to bank check the influence of the larger states. Huger even asserted that the Constitution itself was not a union of people, but a union of large and small states in gild to justify the original framework for electing the president. Designation, argued Griswold and Huger, would violate the spirit of the Constitution past taking abroad a check on the power of the big states.[5]

Next up for the Federalists was Seth Hastings of Massachusetts, who submitted the argument that the designation amendment rendered the vice presidency useless and advocated for the emptying of the 3-fifths clause. John C. Smith asked the inflammatory question of whether the proposed amendment was to help Jefferson go reelected. Speaker Nathaniel Macon called this inappropriate. After Matthew Lyon of Kentucky denounced whatever reference to the three-fifths clause as mere provocation, the House easily passed the resolution 88–39 on October 28.[ citation needed ]

Many Northern representatives argued for the elimination of the electoral higher, and argued for direct election of the President by all U.S. voters.[viii]

Senate [edit]

By Oct 28, the Senate had already been discussing the designation amendment. Democratic–Republican DeWitt Clinton expected that the Senate, with a 24–9 Democratic–Republican majority would quickly pass the amendment. Federalist Jonathan Dayton proposed that the office of the vice president should exist eliminated and his colleague, Uriah Tracy, seconded it. On the other side, Wilson Cary Nicholas was simply worried that Congress would not submit the amendment in time for the states to ratify information technology before the 1804 election. Despite Nicholas' concern, the Senate would not seriously deal with the amendment again until Nov 23.[9]

Much every bit it had in the House, contend centered around the number of candidates in a contingency election and the philosophical underpinnings of the Constitution. Once again, small-scale Federalist states vehemently argued that three candidates gave likewise much power to large states to pick presidents. Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina argued that the problems with the election of 1800 were unlikely to happen again and he would not advocate changing the Constitution simply to stop a Federalist vice president. John Quincy Adams argued that the modify from 5 to three gave an advantage to the people that violated the federative principle of the Constitution. Rather than take the office of the president counterbalanced between united states and the people, Adams felt designation of president and vice president would tip that calibration in favor of the people.[10]

Federalist senators argued for retaining the original procedure for the Electoral Higher. Senator Samuel White of Delaware claimed that the original procedure had not been given "a fair experiment" and criticized the proposed amendment for entrenching the two-political party arrangement which had taken over presidential elections.[11]

In response, the Democratic–Republicans appealed to democratic principles. Samuel Smith of Maryland argued that the presidency ought to be as closely accountable to the people as possible. As such, having three candidates in a contingency ballot is far better than having five, considering it would otherwise be possible to have the 5th all-time candidate become president. Also, designation itself would drastically cut down the number of elections that would reach the House of Representatives, and the president is then much more likely to be the people'due south choice. Another of Smith's arguments was only the election of 1800. William Cocke of Tennessee took a dissimilar arroyo when he argued that the entire pocket-size state argument of the Federalists was simply out of cocky-interest.[12]

1 terminal club of concern for the amendment was to bargain with the possibility that the Firm would fail to choose a president past March 4. It was the least controversial portion of the 12th Amendment and John Taylor proposed that the vice president would have over equally president in that peculiar occurrence, "as in case of the expiry or other Ramble disability of the President".[13]

It seemed articulate all along that the Autonomous–Republican authority would render this a no-contest and the Autonomous–Republicans were just waiting for all their votes to be present, but the Federalists had i final defense. A marathon session of debate from 11:00a.thousand. to ten:00p.thousand. was the order of the twenty-four hour period on December 2, 1803. Near notably, Uriah Tracy of Connecticut argued in a like vein equally Adams when he invoked the federative principle of the Constitution. Tracy claimed the original procedure was formulated to requite the small states a gamble to elect the vice president, who would be a bank check on the president'southward powers. In essence, the states counterbalanced the power of the people. Nonetheless, this works only if you make it partisan, as Georgia (for case) was a Democratic–Republican small state.[xiv]

Proposal and ratification [edit]

The Twelfth Amendment was proposed by the eighth Congress on December 9, 1803, when information technology was approved by the Firm of Representatives by vote of 84–42,[15] having been previously passed by the Senate, 22–10, on Dec 2.[sixteen] The amendment was officially submitted to u.s.a. on December 12, 1803, and was ratified by the legislatures of the post-obit states:[17]

  1. Northward Carolina: December 22, 1803
  2. Maryland: Dec 24, 1803
  3. Kentucky: December 27, 1803
  4. Ohio: December xxx, 1803
  5. Pennsylvania: January 5, 1804
  6. Vermont: January 30, 1804
  7. Virginia: February three, 1804
  8. New York: Feb 10, 1804
  9. New Jersey: Feb 22, 1804
  10. Rhode Island: March 12, 1804
  11. South Carolina: May 15, 1804
  12. Georgia: May 19, 1804
  13. New Hampshire: June xv, 1804
    Having been ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states (thirteen of 17), the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment was completed and it became a part of the Constitution.[A] It was after ratified past:
  14. Tennessee: July 27, 1804
  15. Massachusetts: 1961[B]

The amendment was rejected by Delaware, on January 18, 1804, and past Connecticut, on May 10, 1804. In a September 25, 1804, circular letter of the alphabet to the governors of the states, Secretary of State James Madison declared the amendment ratified by three-fourths of united states.[17]

Balloter Higher under the Twelfth Amendment [edit]

While the Twelfth Amendment did not alter the composition of the Balloter College, information technology did alter the process whereby a president and a vice president are elected. The new balloter process was first used for the 1804 ballot. Each presidential election since has been conducted under the terms of the 12th Amendment.

The Twelfth Amendment stipulates that each elector must bandage singled-out votes for president and vice president, instead of two votes for president. Additionally, electors may not vote for presidential and vice-presidential candidates who both reside in the elector's land—at least one of them must be an inhabitant of another state.

If no candidate for president has a majority of the total votes, the House of Representatives, voting by states and with the same quorum requirements as nether the original procedure, chooses the president. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three highest receivers of balloter votes, compared to five under the original procedure.

The Twelfth Amendment requires a person to receive a majority of the electoral votes for vice president for that person to be elected vice president by the Balloter College. If no candidate for vice president has a majority of the full votes, the Senate, with each senator having i vote, chooses the vice president. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose between the candidates with the "two highest numbers" of electoral votes. If multiple individuals are tied for second place, the Senate may consider them all. The Twelfth Amendment introduced a quorum requirement of two-thirds of the whole number of senators for the acquit of balloting. Furthermore, the Twelfth Subpoena requires the Senate to cull a vice president past manner of the affirmative votes of "a majority of the whole number" of senators.

To prevent deadlocks from keeping the nation leaderless, the 12th Amendment provided that if the Business firm did not cull a president before March4 (then the commencement day of a presidential term), the private elected vice president would "act every bit President, as in the case of the expiry or other constitutional disability of the President". The Twelfth Subpoena did not state for how long the vice president would act as president or if the House could nevertheless choose a president after March iv. Sectionthree of the Twentieth Amendment, adopted in 1933, supersedes that provision of the Twelfth Subpoena past irresolute the date upon which a new presidential term commences to Jan 20, clarifying that the vice president-elect would only "human activity as President" if the House has not chosen a president by January 20, and permitting Congress to statutorily provide "who shall so act equally President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected" if there is no president-elect or vice president-elect past January 20. It besides clarifies that if there is no president-elect on Jan 20, whoever acts as president does and so until a person "qualified" to occupy the presidency is elected to be president.

Interaction with the Twenty-second Amendment [edit]

The 12th Amendment explicitly states the constitutional requirements as provided for the president besides apply to being vice president and the Twenty-2d Amendment bars a ii-term president from existence elected to a third term, merely it is unexplicit whether these amendments together bar any two-term president from later serving equally vice president equally well as from succeeding to the presidency from any indicate in the Us presidential line of succession.[20] Some contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty-second Amendment concerns qualifications for ballot, and thus a former 2-term president is yet eligible to serve as vice president.[21] Some legal scholars propose the contention above would inadequately consider the opportunity information technology affords for one to serve as president more than than two terms plus "[acting] as President, for more than than 2 years," resulting in a violation of the Twenty-2nd Amendment.[22] [23] The interaction between the 2 amendments has not been tested, every bit no twice-elected president has ever been nominated for the vice presidency.

Hillary Clinton jokingly said during her 2016 presidential campaign that she had considered naming her husband, twice-elected sometime president Bill Clinton as her vice presidential running mate, but had been advised it would be unconstitutional.[24] This constitutional ambivalence immune for speculation in 2020 about whether twice-elected former president Barack Obama was eligible to exist vice president.[25]

Elections since 1804 [edit]

Starting with the election of 1804, each presidential election has been conducted under the Twelfth Amendment. Only once since and so has the House of Representatives called the president in a contingent election, in the 1824 ballot every bit none of the four candidates won an absolute majority (131 at the time) of electoral votes: Andrew Jackson received 99 balloter votes, John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) 84, William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 37.

Every bit the Firm could consider only the top iii candidates, Clay was eliminated, while Crawford'southward poor health following a stroke and heart attack made his election by the House unlikely.

Jackson expected the House to vote for him, as he had won a plurality of both the popular[C] and balloter votes. Instead, the House elected Adams on the first election with xiii states, followed past Jackson with seven and Crawford with four.[27] Dirt had endorsed Adams for the presidency, which carried additional weight because Dirt was the Speaker of the House. Adams subsequently appointed Clay every bit his Secretarial assistant of State, to which Jackson and his supporters responded by accusing the pair of making a "corrupt bargain".[28] [29] In the election for vice president, John C. Calhoun (the running mate of both Jackson and Adams) was elected outright, receiving 182 electoral votes.

In 1836, the Whig Party nominated four different candidates in different regions, aiming to splinter the electoral vote while denying Autonomous nominee Martin Van Buren an electoral majority and forcing a contingent election.

The Whig strategy narrowly failed as Van Buren won an electoral vote bulk and an apparent popular vote majority, winning Pennsylvania past 4222 votes. In South Carolina, whose presidential electors were Whigs, no popular vote was held equally the state legislature chose the electors.

The footing for the Whigs' strategy lay in a astringent state-level Autonomous Party split in Pennsylvania that propelled the Whig-aligned Anti-Masonic Party to statewide ability. Party alignments past state in the House of Representatives suggest that any contingent election would have had an uncertain outcome, with none of the candidates (Van Buren, William Henry Harrison and Hugh White) having a clear path to victory.

In that same election, no candidate for vice president secured an electoral majority as the Democratic electors from Virginia refused to vote for Democratic vice presidential nominee, Richard Mentor Johnson, due to his relationship with a former slave, and instead bandage their votes for William Smith.

As a result, Johnson received 147 electoral votes, one vote short of a bulk, followed by Francis Granger with 77, John Tyler with 47 and Smith with 23. Thus, information technology became necessary for the Senate to hold a contingent election betwixt Johnson and Granger for vice president, which Johnson won on the starting time ballot with 33 votes to Granger'due south 16.[xxx]

Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Ceremonious War, there have been two serious attempts by Southern-based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the ii major candidates an electoral college bulk. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) narrowly failed; in both cases, a shift in the consequence of two or three close states would have forced these respective elections into the House.[31] [32]

In modernistic elections, a running mate is often selected in order to entreatment to a dissimilar set of voters. A Home Clause outcome arose during the 2000 presidential ballot contested past George W. Bush (running-mate Dick Cheney) and Al Gore (running-mate Joe Lieberman), because it was alleged that Bush and Cheney were both inhabitants of Texas and that the Texas electors therefore violated the 12th Amendment in casting their ballots for both. Texas' 32 balloter votes were necessary in order to secure Bush-league and Cheney a majority in the Electoral College. With the Democrats picking up four seats in the Senate to equal the Republicans at 50 seats each in the chamber, the consequence of a contingent election in the Senate, especially if it had happened after the newly elected senators had been seated, would accept been far from certain; in fact such an election in 2000, had it happened, would have adamant which party controlled the Senate.

Bush'due south residency was unquestioned, as he was Governor of Texas at the time. However, Cheney and his wife had moved to Dallas 5 years before when he causeless the part of primary executive at Halliburton. Cheney had grown upwardly in Wyoming, had represented information technology in Congress and had continuously maintained a residence[ clarification needed ] in the state during his tenure at Halliburton. A few months before the election, he switched his voter registration and driver'southward license to Wyoming and put his home in Dallas up for sale. Iii Texas voters challenged the ballot in a federal courtroom in Dallas and then appealed the decision to the The states Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, where it was dismissed.[33]

Meet likewise [edit]

  • United States presidential eligibility legislation

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Ratification was probably completed on June xv, 1804, when the New Hampshire legislature ratified the amendment. However, the state'due south governor, John Taylor Gilman, vetoed the resolution of ratification on June 20, and the act failed to pass again past the two-thirds vote and so required by the land constitution. Nevertheless, considering that the ratification prescribed by ArticleV of the Constitution specifies that amendments shall become effective "when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States or by conventions in 3-fourths thereof", it has been generally believed that an blessing or veto past a governor is without legal effect[17]
  2. ^ After having been rejected by the Massachusetts legislature on February 3, 1804.[18] [xix]
  3. ^ Six states at that time chose their electors in the land legislature rather than by popular vote and then did not go on a count of votes for president.[26]

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Constitution of the Us: Amendments eleven–27". National Archives. Retrieved February nine, 2008.
  2. ^ The Electoral Higher—Origin and History Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections
  3. ^ Usa Congress (1797). Annals of Congress. quaternary Congress, 2d Session. p. 1824. Retrieved June 26, 2006.
  4. ^ Forest, Gordon (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early on Commonwealth, 1789–1815 . New York: Oxford University Printing. pp. 285. ISBN978-0-19-503914-6.
  5. ^ a b Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Balloter Higher in the Early Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Printing.
  6. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Balloter Higher in the Early Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 127–128.
  7. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Electoral College in the Early Commonwealth. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 128.
  8. ^ "Throughline - The Balloter College". October xv, 2020.
  9. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Electoral Higher in the Early on Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 133–136.
  10. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Balloter College in the Early on Democracy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 136–137.
  11. ^ Alder, Carolyn (March 3, 2016). "A Far Superior Method—the Original Electoral Higher". Freedom Formula. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
  12. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Subpoena: The Electoral College in the Early Democracy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 137.
  13. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Electoral College in the Early Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 139.
  14. ^ Kuroda, Tadahisa (1999). The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Electoral College in the Early Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 140–141.
  15. ^ "13 Annals of Congress 775 (1805)". Retrieved April xviii, 2014.
  16. ^ "13 Annals of Congress 209 (1805)". Retrieved Apr 18, 2014.
  17. ^ a b c "Constitution of the U.s. of America: Analysis and Estimation" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress. August 26, 2017. pp. 28–30. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
  18. ^ Mount, Steve. "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments". USConstitution.net . Retrieved July 24, 2018.
  19. ^ "Amendment XII". The Founders' Constitution. University of Chicago. Retrieved September vii, 2018.
  20. ^ Franck, Matthew J. (July 31, 2007). "Constitutional Sleight of Hand". National Review . Retrieved Apr 20, 2014.
  21. ^ Gant, Scott E.; Peabody, Bruce G. (June 13, 2006). "How to bring back Bill". The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved June 12, 2008.
  22. ^ "Xx-second Amendment to the United states Constitution".
  23. ^ "VERIFY: No, President Barack Obama can not be named Biden'southward VP; Here's why".
  24. ^ LoBianco, Tom (September xv, 2015). "Hillary Clinton: Beak every bit VP has 'crossed her mind'". CNN. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
  25. ^ Mikkelson, David (April ix, 2020). "Could Barack Obama Serve as Vice President?". Retrieved May 29, 2020.
  26. ^ McNamara, Robert (March 11, 2018). "The Election of 1824 Was Decided in the House of Representatives: The controversial election was denounced as "The Corrupt Bargain."". thoughtco.com. New York, New York: Dotdash. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
  27. ^ Andrew Costly. "BRIA viii 4 a The Election of 1824-25: When the House Chose the President—Constitutional Rights Foundation".
  28. ^ McNamara, Robert. "The Election of 1824 Was Decided in the House of Representatives". About.com. Retrieved July three, 2009.
  29. ^ Parsons, Lynn Hudson (2009). The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828 . Oxford Academy Press. pp. 106. ISBN978-0-19-975424-3.
  30. ^ "VP Richard Mentor Johnson". May xxx, 2014.
  31. ^ "Pupil Activity: Presidential Campaign of 1948". Harry South. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved March nineteen, 2016.
  32. ^ "American Feel: George Wallace—1968 Campaign". PBS. 2000. Retrieved March xix, 2016.
  33. ^ Bravin, Jess. Obscure Texas Instance Offers Peek Into Role Of Courtroom Nominee, The Wall Street Periodical, Oct. 7, 2005.

External links [edit]

  • Constitution of the United States, via Wikisource
  • CRS Annotated Constitution: Twelfth Subpoena, via Cornell Police force School
  • Ellis, East. Due south. (1903). Thomas Jefferson: A Character Sketch., via Projection Gutenberg
  • U. S. Electoral Higher, via Function of the Federal Annals
  • Hawley, Joshua (Apr 2014). "The Transformative 12th Subpoena". William & Mary Law Review. Academy of Missouri School of Law. 55 (4): 1501.

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